Classics Ambassador Mili Thakrar takes us on a journey across the ancient world to explore the intercultural significance of one of the most frightening yet wonderful forces of nature.
A Universal Symbol of Divine Power?
Lightning, one of nature’s most awe-inspiring phenomena, has captivated the human imagination since the dawn of civilisation. Across ancient cultures, lightning was seen not just as a natural event but as a powerful divine force wielded by the gods. From the Greco-Roman world to Mesopotamia to indigenous American cultures, lightning consistently emerges in every corner of the earth as a symbol of divine authority, judgment and the direct intervention of the gods in the world of mortals.
Greek mythology: Zeus
In ancient Greece, lightning was most famously associated with Zeus, the king of the gods and ruler of Mount Olympus. Zeus’ thunderbolts were the ultimate expression of his divine authority, capable of enforcing his will across the cosmos. According to Hesiod’s epic poem the Theogony, the thunderbolts were crafted by the Cyclopes, the giant, one-eyed smiths who served Zeus. They were gifted to him after he liberated the Cyclopes from imprisonment in the underworld during the Titanomachy, the epic battle between the Olympian gods and the Titans, and they are symbols of Zeus’ supreme power and his role as the enforcer of justice.
As such, his use of lightning is woven into many myths, where it symbolises his omnipotence and his role as the enforcer of justice. For instance, in the myth of Phaethon, the son of Helios the sun-god, Phaethon loses control of his father’s chariot, nearly setting the Earth ablaze. To prevent catastrophe, Zeus hurls a thunderbolt at Phaethon, killing him and averting disaster; in this, he thereby fulfils his role as protector of order in the universe and maintainer of cosmic balance.
Another example is the punishment of Salmoneus, a mortal king who attempted to deceive people into thinking he was Zeus by driving a chariot which dragged skins and cauldrons behind it to imitate thunder, while he threw torches into the air to mimic lightning. Angered by this blasphemy, Zeus struck Salmoneus down with a real thunderbolt, thus reaffirming his peerless divine authority.
Beyond its narrative function, lightning also played a huge role in Greek religious practices. The Greeks often interpreted lightning as an omen, a direct communication from Zeus. For instance, during important events such as military campaigns or political decisions, the Greeks would look for signs in the sky, particularly lightning, to determine the favour or displeasure of the gods. This practice of interpreting divine signs (i.e., divination) was crucial to ensuring that the actions of mortals were aligned with the will of the gods.
Statue of (probably) Zeus from Artemisium, mid-fifth century BCE
The sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia, one of the most important religious sites in ancient Greece, featured a colossal statue of Zeus holding a thunderbolt in order to remind worshippers of the chief god’s might and vigilance and to emphasise his supreme power.
Roman mythology: Jupiter
In Roman mythology, Jupiter occupies the same position as Zeus in Greek mythology: king of the gods, ruler of the skies and wielder of lightning. Jupiter’s thunderbolts were similarly seen as the ultimate expression of divine power and authority. The Romans, inheriting much of their mythology from the Greeks, viewed Jupiter’s control over lightning as a sign of his supreme position among the gods and his role as arbiter of justice.
Jupiter was worshipped at many temples throughout the Roman Empire, but the most significant was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (‘Jupiter the Best and Greatest’) on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. This temple was the religious heart of Rome and a symbol of the state’s authority. It housed a statue of Jupiter holding a thunderbolt, reinforcing his role as the protector of Rome and the guarantor of its might.
Lightning also played a role for the Romans in auspicium, the interpretation of omens. Priests known as augurs would observe the sky for signs, including lightning, to predict future events or to determine the gods’ approval of certain actions. This practice was especially important during times of war and crisis, and during the election of magistrates. Interpretation would hinge on the direction from which the lightning came, the location where it struck, and the time it appeared. Lightning from the left generally seen as favourable, while if it came from the right it was considered an ominous sign.
One famous instance of lightning’s importance in Roman history involves Julius Caesar. On the eve of his crossing of the river Rubicon – the action which marks the beginning of his civil war with Pompey – Caesar is said to have witnessed a lightning bolt. Some sources suggest that this was interpreted as a divine sign, either encouraging or warning him about his bold move to defy the Senate. Whether viewed as an endorsement or a caution, lightning in this case certainly symbolises the profound intersection of divine will and human ambition.
Just as Zeus used his thunderbolt to enforce justice in Greek mythology, Jupiter employed lightning to uphold divine law in Roman myth. Jupiter’s use of lightning as a means of punishment was deeply ingrained in Roman religious thought. The Romans believed that those who committed grave offences against the gods or the state could be struck down by Jupiter’s lightning, seen as the ultimate form of divine retribution.
For instance, the Roman historian Livy tells us that Tullus Hostilius, the third king of Rome, was a warrior who expanded Rome’s influence through military conquest. However, he neglected the religious rituals that were so vital to maintaining the favour of the gods, particularly those honouring Jupiter. Eventually, a plague struck Rome, which was interpreted as a sign of divine displeasure. Seeking to appease Jupiter, Tullus attempted to perform certain sacred rites but did so incorrectly, further angering the god. As a consequence, Jupiter struck Tullus and his house with a thunderbolt, killing him instantly and burning his house the ground. Tullus’ demise showcases the importance of religious observance in Roman society and serves as a warning about the dangers of neglecting the gods. It also makes clear that Jupiter’s lightning was not just a symbol of power but an active tool for enforcing divine justice.
Jupiter’s connection to lightning was perhaps made strongest in the establishment of the cult of Jupiter Tonans (‘Jupiter the Thunderer’) on the Capitoline Hill. This cult was founded by the emperor Augustus, who believed that he had narrowly escaped being struck by lightning during a military campaign and established the temple to demonstrate his gratitude.
Norse mythology: Thor
The Nordic peoples associated lightning with Thor, the god of thunder, storms and war. Thor, one of the most venerated deities in the Norse pantheon, wielded Mjölnir, a powerful hammer that could create lightning and thunder when it struck a blow. Thor’s association with lightning symbolised his role as the protector of both gods and humans, defending them from the chaotic forces of giants and other malevolent beings.
Thor’s Fight With the Giants, Mårten Eskil Winge, 1872
Thor’s battles with the giants, often accompanied by storms and lightning, demonstrate his role as the champion of order against chaos. The Norse people believed that thunderstorms were manifestations of Thor riding across the sky in his chariot, drawn by two goats, hurling Mjölnir at his enemies. This belief in Thor’s protection was central to the Norse worldview, where the natural world was seen as a battleground between the forces of order and chaos.
Hinduism: Indra
The king of the Hindu deities, Indra, is also strongly associated with lightning, in addition to thunder, rain and war. Indra wields the Vajra, a divine weapon that produces thunderbolts, indicating his role as protector of the heavens and the earth. In the Rigveda, one of the oldest Hindu sacred texts, Indra is celebrated for his victory over Vritra, a serpent-like demon who personifies drought. By striking Vritra with the Vajra, Indra releases the waters and brings life-giving rain to the world.
Indra’s connection to lightning and thunderstorms highlights his role as a provider of fertility and sustenance, which is of course essential for agricultural societies. The Vajra, much like Zeus’ thunderbolt or Mjölnir, symbolises the god’s power to both destroy and create, maintaining the balance of the natural world.
Painting of Indra, c.1820
Mesopotamian mythology: Adad
In ancient Mesopotamia, lightning was connected with Adad (also known as Ishkur), the god of storms, rain and thunder. Adad was a crucial deity in the Mesopotamian pantheon, especially in agricultural societies that depended on seasonal rains for their crops. As the bringer of both beneficial rains and destructive storms, Adad’s control over lightning and thunder was seen as a manifestation of his power to sustain or devastate the land.
The Mesopotamians, like the Greeks and Romans, interpreted lightning as a sign of divine will. Adad’s thunderstorms were both feared and revered, symbolising the dual nature of the gods as both protectors and punishers. Temples dedicated to Adad often depicted him wielding lightning bolts, highlighting his control over the forces of nature.
Assyrian soldiers carrying statue of Adad
Indigenous cultures of the Americas
Native American peoples also revered lightning as a powerful and sacred force. For many tribes, lightning was seen as a manifestation of the Great Spirit (the supreme divine life force) or other powerful deities. The Navajo tribe, for example, believed that lightning was the flash of the eyes of the Thunderbird, a mighty spirit who controlled the skies and brought storms.
Among Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs associated lightning with the god Tlaloc, who presided over rain, fertility and water. Tlaloc was both feared and worshipped for his ability to bring life through rain or death through floods and storms. His lightning bolts were seen as symbols of his power to control the weather and ensure the fertility of the land.
Depiction of Tlaloc in the Codex Borgia (16th-century manuscript from Central Mexico)
Final thoughts
Across the world’s ancient cultures, lightning has consistently served as a symbol of divine power, authority and justice. From Zeus and Jupiter in the classical traditions of Greece and Rome to Tlaloc in Aztec religion, the control of lightning by the gods reflects a universal human awe of nature’s most dramatic forces.
These myths and religious practices reveal the deep connection between humans and the natural world, where lightning was not just a physical phenomenon but a divine message, a tool of creation and destruction, and a symbol of the gods’ active presence in the lives of mortals. Whether as a weapon of war, a tool of justice or a bringer of life, lightning in ancient mythologies illustrates the belief that the gods wielded immense power over the world, shaping the destiny of humanity with every strike.
This universal symbol of divine power continues to resonate today, reminding us of the enduring influence of these ancient beliefs and the timeless human quest to understand and connect with the forces that govern our world.
©MiliThakrar
Lytham St Annes CA 